QCAA CHEMISTRY GRADE 11 & 12 NOTES HUB
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Chemistry : 1. Atomic Structure
1. Structure of the Atom -
Learn about the three main particles of an atom: protons, neutrons, and electrons,
and understand their charges and positions inside the atom.
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2. Electron Arrangement -
Study how electrons are arranged in energy levels, shells, and orbitals, and learn
how to write electron configurations correctly.
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3. Ions and Isotopes -
Understand what ions and isotopes are and learn the difference between
atomic number (Z), mass number (A), and isotopes.
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4. Electron Configuration Rules -
Explore important principles including the Aufbau Principle,
Hund’s Rule, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle used for arranging electrons.
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Chemistry : 2. Isotopes
1. Understanding Isotopes -
Learn how isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain different
numbers of neutrons while having the same number of protons.
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2. Properties of Isotopes -
Understand why isotopes have similar chemical properties but different
physical properties such as mass and stability.
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3. Relative Atomic Mass -
Learn how relative atomic mass is calculated using the weighted average
masses and abundances of naturally occurring isotopes.
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Chemistry : 3. Analytical Techniques
1. Mass Spectrometry -
Learn how mass spectrometry is used to identify elements, determine isotope
abundances, and calculate relative atomic mass.
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2. Flame Tests -
Study how different elements produce characteristic flame colours and how
flame tests help scientists identify metal ions.
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3. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) -
Understand how AAS is used to measure the concentration of metallic ions
present in solutions accurately.
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4. Applications of Analytical Techniques -
Explore how scientists use analytical methods to identify elements,
analyse isotopes, and investigate chemical substances.
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Chemistry : 4. Periodic Table and Trends
1. Organisation of the Periodic Table -
Learn how elements are arranged in the periodic table based on their
atomic number, groups, periods, and electronic configuration.
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2. Periodic Trends -
Study important trends in the periodic table including atomic radius,
ionisation energy, and electronegativity across periods and down groups.
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3. Reactivity of Alkali Metals -
Understand how the reactivity of alkali metals changes down Group 1
and why these elements react so easily.
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4. Reactivity of Halogens -
Explore the trends in reactivity of halogens in Group 17 and learn
how their chemical behaviour changes down the group.
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Chemistry : 5. Introduction to Bonding
1. Why Atoms Form Bonds -
Learn why atoms combine with other atoms to achieve stability and complete
their outer electron shells.
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2. Types of Chemical Bonding -
Study ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding and understand how electrons
are transferred or shared between atoms.
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3. Lewis Dot Structures and Valency -
Learn how to draw Lewis dot structures, identify valency, and determine
bonding and lone pairs of electrons.
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4. Naming Chemical Compounds -
Understand how to name ionic and molecular compounds correctly using
IUPAC naming rules and chemical formulas.
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Chemistry : 6. Compounds and Mixtures
1. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures -
Learn the differences between elements, compounds, and mixtures, and how
substances are classified in chemistry.
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2. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures -
Understand the characteristics of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
and how their components are distributed.
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3. Physical Properties of Substances -
Study physical properties such as melting point, boiling point, density,
colour, and solubility used to identify substances.
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4. Comparing Pure Substances and Mixtures -
Explore how pure substances differ from mixtures in terms of composition,
properties, and separation methods.
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Chemistry : 7. Bonding and Properties
1. Types of Compounds and Bonding -
Study ionic, covalent, and metallic compounds and understand how different
types of bonding affect the structure of substances.
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2. Physical Properties of Substances -
Learn how bonding influences melting point, boiling point, electrical
conductivity, hardness, and strength of materials.
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3. Giant Covalent Structures and Carbon Allotropes -
Explore giant covalent networks and different allotropes of carbon such as
diamond and graphite, including their unique properties.
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4. Hydrocarbons -
Learn about hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, and benzene, and
understand how bonding affects their chemical properties.
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Chemistry : 8. Practical Investigations
1. Separating Mixtures -
Learn practical methods used to separate mixtures such as filtration,
evaporation, distillation, and chromatography.
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2. Properties of Different Compounds -
Investigate the physical and chemical properties of ionic, covalent,
and metallic compounds through laboratory experiments.
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3. Tests for Alkanes and Alkenes -
Study practical chemical tests used to distinguish between alkanes and
alkenes, including reactions with bromine water.
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4. Experimental Skills and Observations -
Develop laboratory skills such as observing reactions, recording results,
analysing data, and following safe scientific procedures.
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Chemistry : 9. Chemical Reactions
1. Writing Chemical Equations -
Learn how to write and balance chemical equations correctly using chemical
formulas and state symbols.
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2. Combustion and Acid-Base Reactions -
Study combustion reactions and acid-base reactions, including how substances
react to produce new products and energy changes.
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3. Decomposition and Displacement Reactions -
Understand decomposition and displacement reactions and learn how elements
or compounds break apart or replace one another.
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4. Redox Reactions -
Explore oxidation and reduction reactions, including the transfer of
electrons and changes in oxidation states.
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Chemistry : 10. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
1. Energy Changes in Reactions -
Learn how chemical reactions involve energy changes and understand the
difference between exothermic and endothermic reactions.
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2. Bond Breaking and Bond Forming -
Study how energy is absorbed when bonds are broken and released when new
bonds are formed during chemical reactions.
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3. Enthalpy Diagrams and Thermochemical Equations -
Understand how to read and analyse enthalpy level diagrams and
thermochemical equations to determine energy changes.
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4. Heat Transfer Calculations -
Learn how to calculate heat energy and enthalpy changes using formulas
such as Q = mcΔT in chemical reactions.
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Chemistry : 11. Mole Concept and Conservation of Mass
1. The Mole and Avogadro’s Number -
Learn what a mole is, understand Avogadro’s number, and discover how chemists
measure extremely small particles in chemical reactions.
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2. Mole Calculations -
Study how to calculate moles, mass, molar mass, and the number of particles
using important chemistry formulas and conversions.
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3. Empirical and Molecular Formula -
Learn how to determine empirical and molecular formulas from chemical data
and percentage composition calculations.
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4. Limiting Reactants and Percentage Yield -
Understand limiting reactants, theoretical yield, experimental yield,
and how to calculate percentage yield in chemical reactions.
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Chemistry : 12. Intermolecular Forces
1. Molecular Shape and VSEPR Theory -
Learn how molecular shape affects chemical properties using VSEPR theory
and study common molecular geometries.
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2. Shapes of Molecules -
Study molecular shapes including linear, bent, trigonal planar,
tetrahedral, and pyramidal structures.
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3. Molecular Polarity and Intermolecular Forces -
Understand molecular polarity and explore dispersion forces,
dipole-dipole attractions, and hydrogen bonding.
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4. Effects on Physical Properties -
Learn how intermolecular forces influence boiling point, melting point,
vapour pressure, and solubility of substances.
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Chemistry : 13. Chromatography Techniques
1. Paper Chromatography and TLC -
Learn how paper chromatography and thin layer chromatography (TLC)
are used to separate substances in mixtures.
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2. Separation of Mixtures -
Understand how different substances move at different speeds depending
on their interactions with stationary and mobile phases.
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3. Calculating RF Values -
Study how to calculate RF values and use them to compare and identify
components in a chromatogram.
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4. Identifying Pure Substances and Mixtures -
Learn how chemists use chromatography to determine whether a substance
is pure or contains multiple components.
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Chemistry : 14. Gases
1. Kinetic Theory of Gases -
Learn how the kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gas particles
and their constant random motion.
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2. Pressure, Temperature, and Volume -
Study the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume
in gaseous systems and how changes affect gas behaviour.
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3. Ideal Gas Equation -
Understand the ideal gas equation and learn how to apply the formula
pV = nRT in gas calculations.
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4. Gas Laws and Ideal Gas Behaviour -
Explore gas laws, molar volume at STP and SLC, and the behaviour
of ideal gases under different conditions.
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Chemistry : 15. Practical Investigations
1. Boyle’s Law Experiments -
Investigate the relationship between pressure and volume in gases
through practical experiments and data analysis.
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2. Molar Volume of Gases -
Learn how to determine the molar volume of gases at STP and SLC
using experimental techniques and calculations.
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3. Paper Chromatography and TLC -
Perform chromatography experiments to separate mixtures and identify
components using paper chromatography and thin layer chromatography.
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4. 3D Molecular Models -
Explore the shapes and structures of molecules by constructing and
analysing three-dimensional molecular models.
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Chemistry : 16. Aqueous Solutions and Molarity
1. Properties of Water -
Learn about the unique properties of water and understand how
hydrogen bonding affects its behaviour.
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2. Solute, Solvent, and Solution -
Understand the differences between solutes, solvents, and solutions
and how substances dissolve in water.
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3. Concentration and Molarity -
Study concentration and molarity calculations using the formula
c = n / V in aqueous solutions.
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4. Types of Solutions -
Explore saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions and
learn how solubility changes under different conditions.
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Chemistry : 17. Identifying Ions in Solution
1. Precipitation Reactions -
Learn how precipitation reactions occur when dissolved ions combine
to form an insoluble solid called a precipitate.
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2. Solubility Rules -
Study important solubility rules used to predict whether substances
will dissolve or form precipitates in aqueous solutions.
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3. Ionic Equations -
Understand how to write complete ionic equations and net ionic equations
for chemical reactions in solution.
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4. Identifying Ions in Solution -
Learn practical methods used to identify positive and negative ions
through chemical tests and reaction observations.
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Chemistry : 18. Solubility
1. Solubility of Substances -
Learn how ionic and molecular substances dissolve in water and other
solvents based on their chemical properties.
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2. Temperature and Solubility -
Study how changes in temperature affect the solubility of solids,
liquids, and gases in different solutions.
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3. Solubility Curves -
Understand how to read and interpret solubility curves to determine
the amount of solute that dissolves at various temperatures.
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4. Factors Affecting Dissolving -
Explore factors such as temperature, stirring, and particle size
that influence the dissolving process and solubility rates.
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Chemistry : 19. pH and Acids
1. Understanding pH -
Learn what pH means and how the pH scale is used to measure the acidity
or alkalinity of solutions.
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2. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases -
Study the differences between strong and weak acids and bases,
including their ionisation and chemical behaviour.
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3. Arrhenius Theory -
Understand the Arrhenius theory of acids and bases and learn how acids
produce hydrogen ions while bases produce hydroxide ions in water.
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4. Acid Reactions -
Explore how acids react with metals, bases, and carbonates and learn
the products formed during these reactions.
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Chemistry : 20. Practical Investigations
1. Precipitation Reactions -
Investigate how insoluble precipitates form when certain aqueous
solutions are mixed together in chemical reactions.
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2. Solubility Experiments -
Study how temperature and different solvents affect the solubility
of substances through practical laboratory experiments.
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3. Reactions of Acids with Metals and Bases -
Observe how acids react with metals and bases and identify the
products formed during these chemical reactions.
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4. Reactions of Acids with Carbonates -
Explore reactions between acids and carbonates and learn how carbon
dioxide gas is produced and tested experimentally.
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Chemistry : 21. Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
1. Temperature and Reaction Rate -
Learn how increasing temperature affects particle movement and
increases the speed of chemical reactions.
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2. Concentration and Pressure -
Study how higher concentration and pressure increase collision
frequency and affect the rate of reactions.
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3. Surface Area -
Understand how increasing the surface area of reactants allows
more particle collisions and speeds up reactions.
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4. Catalysts -
Explore how catalysts increase reaction rates by lowering
activation energy without being used up in the reaction.
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Chemistry : 22. Collision Theory
1. Particle Collisions in Reactions -
Learn how chemical reactions occur when particles collide with
enough energy and correct orientation.
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2. Activation Energy -
Study activation energy and understand the minimum amount of
energy required for a chemical reaction to occur.
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3. Reaction Speed and Collision Theory -
Explore why some reactions are faster than others by analysing
collision frequency and collision effectiveness.
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4. Maxwell-Boltzmann Curves and Energy Profiles -
Learn how Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curves and energy profile
diagrams explain particle energy and reaction pathways.
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Chemistry : 23. Catalysts
1. How Catalysts Work -
Learn how catalysts speed up chemical reactions without being
permanently changed or used up in the process.
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2. Activation Energy and Catalysts -
Study how catalysts lower activation energy and provide an
alternative pathway for reactions to occur more easily.
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3. Catalysts in Industry -
Explore important industrial catalysts used in processes such as
the Haber process and catalytic converters.
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4. Biological Catalysts -
Learn about enzymes as biological catalysts and understand their
role in speeding up reactions inside living organisms.
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Chemistry : 24. Rate Calculations
1. Measuring Reaction Rates -
Learn how the rate of a chemical reaction can be measured using
changes in concentration, volume, or mass over time.
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2. Rate Formula -
Study the rate of reaction formula and learn how to calculate
reaction speed using experimental data.
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3. Analysing Experimental Data -
Understand how to interpret graphs and tables showing changes
in reactants and products during chemical reactions.
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4. Comparing Reaction Speeds -
Explore how different conditions affect reaction speed and
compare fast and slow chemical reactions quantitatively.
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